Minority stress

Human rights are based on the basic tenet that all people are of equal value and that we are equal. The principle of non-discrimination is therefore embedded in all human rights agreements. In spite of the fine words in the documents, many people continue to experience discrimination. Particularly vulnerable are people who belong to minority groups.

Socialisation, discrimination and minority stress

From a very early age we are socialised into the norms of the community, “inheriting” the views and beliefs of our society. If the community teaches us that some groups are of less value, it affects us and how we see ourselves and others, even if we belong to a disparaged group. The extra burden minority groups may experience in a society, through the general feeling of being outsiders, and being the target of negative comments and hate crime, is called minority stress. “The minority-stress model is based on social psychology research which has shown that the self – in other words an individual’s perception of being an active member of society – is connected to the idea that an individual belongs to various groups and develops an identity.”[1]

Minority stress is experienced when individuals feel stigmatised and are subjected to prejudice and discrimination because of their minority identity. If this happens once, it may not be too concerning. But if it occurs repeatedly, individuals experiencing it will eventually expect to encounter prejudice and discrimination. They will be more alert and might perceive the surrounding world with scepticism and fear. To protect themselves they may expend much energy on consciously or unconsciously making choices, large or small, so they can avoid landing in uncomfortable situations. Isolation, withdrawal and attempts to conceal one’s identity[2] may be consequences. Eventually individuals may consider themselves and others in the group more negatively, which may affect their sense of human value. Studies show that minority stress can lead to such mental problems as anxiety, depression, drug addition, suicide and eating disorders. Physical problems can be high blood pressure and heart and cardiovascular diseases.[3] Many empirical findings indicate that discrimination leads to mental illness.[4] Among groups that may experience minority stress are disabled people, gays, national minorities, immigrants, people with dark skin and persons with another ethnic or cultural background than the majority.

People who are susceptible to minority stress are not always aware of this. Expecting negative feedback from others and having mixed feelings, including shame, about one’s minority identity can be something real even if one is unaware of the causes. Even if people with a minority belonging do not experience discrimination, it may adversely affect their health if someone they love and identify with is treated unfairly. Children and young people may, for example, feel afraid, helpless and of less value if they experience that their parents are treated unfairly. Feelings such as anger and aggression may also arise.

Being part of a discriminated minority is no guarantee that a person will not practise discrimination themself. People with minority backgrounds can also be prejudiced against and stigmatise others.

The greater society

When the mental and physical health of minority groups is negatively affected by stigmatisation, prejudice and discrimination, there are consequences for the greater society. Increased use of the health services and a rise in sickness absenteeism will put a strain on the health- and social-services sector, thus depriving our society of many resources and competence. The situation for families in this situation can also be affected adversely, as their democratic participation can be impeded. Other problems are lack of trust, more polarisation and heightened potential for conflict.

External issues

The theory on minority stress can explain the increased proportion of mental and physical health complaints among minorities compared to the majority. This can be the consequence of such external factors as stigmatisation, prejudice and discrimination, and not as an inherent quality of the minority persons themselves. One implication of the theory is that the level of such stress in the population and the targeted minority groups will vary over time and from one community to the next. When negative attitudes to minorities are reduced in a society, there will be less minority stress. An example is that the improved situation for gays in Norway in recent decades has led to better living conditions for this group of people.[5]

On the other hand, it may be expected that if a minority group is subjected to more discrimination and negative focus and discrimination over time, minority stress will increase. There are many examples that show how external incidents can cause more minority stress. The attack on the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001 resulted in Muslims across the world experiencing greater stress. The terror attack in Oslo the night before the Pride Parade on 25 Juni 2022, where two people were killed and several were wounded, led to fear and more minority stress among gays.

Intersectionality

People with several minority identities may be more vulnerable to discrimination, for example if they have immigrant backgrounds and are also gay or disabled. If they are also unemployed and/or lack social support, they are even more prone to discrimination. Intersectionality - or the effects of multiple forms of discrimination - is a theoretical approach that attempts to understand the complex ways in which social identities can overlap and in negative cases lead to unfair treatment due to several types of discrimination. Insights from this theory may help us to better understand how discrimination arises.

“Black women are doubly oppressed, they are discriminated against both as women and as blacks.”
Kimberlé W. Crenshaw (1989)

Studies of minority stress and intersectionality use such social categories as culture, sexual orientation, gender and disability as analytical instruments. The categories are used to determine how the factors interact and how they create differences in living conditions, also on the structural level. This may give us a more comprehensive picture of discrimination and how it can be prevented. However, when aiming for deeper understanding, it is important to use the categories with care and caution so one does not contribute to maintaining and recreating what is basically an unfortunate difference. When one identity of people is highlighted, this may come at the expense of others. The goal must be to strive to achieve a society where everyone is equal.

What can we do?

One of the most important measures for preventing minority stress is to counteract discrimination. Raising awareness of how easily we categorise others, and encouraging critical thinking when we encounter prejudices and stereotypes are important measures. Learning about human rights based on the value of human life and equality will contribute positively. We know that all individuals are unique and complex. The qualities and types of belonging of people, whether they have minority or majority identities, are equally important for the individual in question. If individuals are free to be who they are, security and intrinsic value will be developed as well as the capacity to care about others and take part in the community. The goal must be to see others as the unique and complex human beings they are, just as we would like to be seen ourselves.

“I dream that one day my four little children will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.” Martin Luther King

Microaggression

When talking about minority stress the term microaggression may be used. Microaggression means utterances and actions aiming to point out how an individual is different. “It’s not about the sender’s intentions, rather it’s about how the message is perceived. (HL-senteret [The Norwegian Centre for Holocaust and Minority Studies], 2019.)

“Some people can experience hurtful comments about such things as their parents’ rules, the way their home is furnished, the food they eat or that they pray during school hours. It can be humiliating to be called ‘foreigner’ or ‘immigrant’ if you identify as Norwegian. Many people experience this even if they are born in Norway or have lived here most of their lives. One small dose may not hurt, but thousands of doses will definitively be felt. In this sense, microaggression can have a major effect on a person’s self-confidence and sense of dignity.” HL-senteret (The Norwegian Centre for Holocaust and Minority Studies).

The role of the media

Media coverage of minority issues may have greater impact on the population than other material. The reason is that people in general often lack information that could supplement or correct what the media serves. Precisely because minorities are so few in number, not many people will have direct contact with them. When a person does not personally know a Romany person, a Saami, an immigrant, a refugee or a Jew, it is much easier to be influenced by newspaper stereotypes. This is because what is presented in the media is a simplification. The news format provides limited space for in-depth and balanced material. Moreover, what is uncommon, dramatic, incomprehensible or controversial will most often be highlighted. Everyday life is not interesting enough. Thus the media reinforce the distance between “us” and “them”. Even if people in general are not so different, the dissimilarities will be highlighted. The bar for initiating contact with the “others” is raised. When there is no communication there is less chance of correcting stereotypes. The probability of developing the “us” and “them” dichotomy, including picturing an enemy, is reinforced.

[1] Source: SNL (Norwegian Encyclopaedia). Keyword: Minority stress 30 March 2024

[2] Such as identity relating to sexual orientation, religion, culture and language.

[3] Source: SNL. Keyword: Minority stress 30 March 2024

[4] A study from the Norwegian Institute of Public Health shows that people with a minority background who experience discrimination have a double risk of experiencing mental health issues. Children and young people have a higher risk of anxiety, depression and mental stress.

[5] Among the majority of all queer groups in Norway, living conditions and health are comparable to the majority population. However, subgroups such as transgender and gender incongruity still have poorer mental health. Source: Norwegian Medical Association’s periodical on 13 June 2022 (headline article).

[6]Peder Nustad. Hverdagsrasisme og mikroaggresjon [Everyday racism and microaggression]. Dembra

[7] Ibid.